[Special Feature: Encountering Books] Mayumi Tsuda: An Introduction to Edo Publishing

Books from the Edo period are the most accessible of all classical texts. Even without visiting a special reading room, a few can be found on the open shelves of the Mita Media Center, and they are also lined up in front of secondhand bookstores. In the FutureLearn videos that Keio broadcasts to the world, Ohya-shobo in Jinbocho is shown; the sight of books stacked horizontally is spectacular and shows the original way Japanese books were stored. If you are interested, I would like you to touch them gently with clean hands. The sensation of turning thin washi paper, the texture of the book, and the atmosphere cannot be felt through database images. I believe that doing so allows one to share the same field of vision as the people who once held them.

That said, images published by holding institutions on the internet should also be used effectively, so I have included QR codes instead of illustrations. It might be interesting to see for yourself how they are made public ("Japanese Culture Through Rare Books").

Books originally have the property that their size, shape, and binding represent their content, but in the Edo period, when commercial publishing began, economic reasons were added to this, and book formats and bindings became more standardized.

A striking example of this is the "Kusa-zoshi," a type of reading material produced in Edo where pictures and text are intermingled on the page. These had a wide readership ranging from daimyo to children in back-alley tenements, and had the highest number of copies and titles published. In this genre, the number of pages is strictly fixed. Not only that, but the intricacy of the illustrations—which directly affected the cost of carving and printing the woodblocks—and the atmosphere of the covers were kept the same. The reason was the equalization of production costs, as publishers engaged in "Hon-gae" (book exchange), physically swapping new publications of equal value with one another.

Following this genre, there was a period when books were bound in unusual sizes with large margins for rental bookstores. Also, when reprinting and adjusting the book design to market changes, one encounters cases where they did not hesitate to split a continuous two-page spread illustration between the first and second volumes. This suggests that books were products of a market economy and that for publishers, the form and binding of the book were more important than the content. The process of making these Kusa-zoshi is enjoyably shown in Jippensha Ikku's "Atariya Shitaji Hon-doiya" (1802) (National Diet Library Collection: "Atariya Shitaji Hon-doiya").

Now, generally circulated books were "fukuro-toji" (pouch binding), made by folding a single sheet of paper in half. A cover is attached, and four small holes are made on the right side for "yotsume-toji" (four-hole binding) with silk thread. A single sheet of paper used inside the pouch binding is called a "cho" (leaf), and locations are indicated as "Icho-omote" (leaf one, front) or "Icho-ura" (leaf one, back). Connoisseurs of the past would say "I-o" or "I-u."

It is easy to take apart a bound book, and because owners could easily modify them, the basic rule of classical text research is to look at as many books with the same title as possible, even if they are printed books. This is because it is difficult to say for certain how a book was produced based on just one copy. Even in the first edition, different versions such as deluxe editions with different paper, format, or binding exist, and advertisements also change. Even in reprinted versions, clues for considering that specific book or the history of publishing may remain. Of course, the history carved into each book is also different.

Book formats are based on general paper sizes. There are two main lineages: Obon (approx. 27 cm high x 20 cm wide) based on Mino-gami paper, and Hanshibon (approx. 24 cm high x 17 cm wide) based on Hanshi paper. Since there was a tendency to make books larger during eras when books were precious, it depends on the period, but generally, Obon were specialized books with traditionally high-status content called "Mononohon." Hanshibon were more general books, such as enlightenment books that made specialized topics easy to understand, or for entertainment reading, literary works with a high-minded atmosphere and solid research. For example, some "Yomihon" (reading books) like Kyokutei Bakin's "Nanso Satomi Hakkenden" are in this format.

Sizes created by cutting the above two in half were also utilized. Half the size of Obon is Chubon. This format was used for practical reading materials and lighter reading, including various guidebooks, "Oraimono" (textbooks for temple schools), practice books for music (Edo scores focused mainly on lyrics), "Yomihon" intended for more casual reading, "Kokkeibon" (funny books) like Yajikita, "Ninjobon" (sentimental books) featuring the latest fashions and love affairs, and the aforementioned "Kusa-zoshi." Half the size of Hanshibon is Kobon. These were used for books intended for portability, such as simple vocabularies and dictionaries for Waka, Kanshi, and Haikai. Among reading materials, "Sharebon," which contained a lot of information about the pleasure quarters, were also in this size.

Other names to remember include Yokobon (horizontal books), which are practical books bound on the short side; Tatenagabon (vertically long books), made in elegant imitation of Chinese books; and Masugatabon (square books), which are nearly square and mimic the format of Heian-period poetic tales. "Oku no Hosomichi" is a representative example of Masugatabon. While general Haiku books are Hanshibon, historical masterpieces were intentionally made in that format.

Books circulating in the Edo period were not necessarily only printed ones. In elegant literature, there was a strong sense that handwritten works were superior, and rental bookstores had many hand-copied books; the business of copying text from books upon request was also established. Edo period books must be viewed with this culture of manuscripts and rental books in mind. However, there is no doubt that printing, which could produce large numbers of copies at once, allowed commercial publishing to flourish in the Edo period, causing a revolution in the enjoyment of books compared to previous eras. This printing technology also changed according to market trends, and products responding to new demands were born; an overview is provided below.

17th Century: While printing itself had been done for a long time, centered around temples, the metal movable type printing technology from the Korean Peninsula and Jesuit missionaries brought to Japan at the end of the Sengoku period had a major impact. Publishing using copper or wood movable type was attempted by everyone from the Emperor and the Tokugawa family to the general public. As a technologically developing nation, Japan was immature in casting metal type, so wood type was widely used. Compared to modern type, this era is called the "Kokatsuji-ban" (early movable type edition) period.

Although many details about these Kokatsuji-ban remain unknown, influences from Eastern and Western origins are visible, and eventually, a method of printing by tightening and fixing wood type from the surroundings became established in Japan. Eastern books have "Kyokaku" (border lines) surrounding the main text; when made with this method, the vertical and horizontal lines do not completely meet. If there are gaps in the corners of the border, it can be identified as one of these old (and expensive) Kokatsuji-ban.

On the other hand, a beautiful group of books called Sagabon, produced by Hon'ami Koetsu and Suminokura Soan, insisted on handwritten-style Japanese script. They were pioneers in providing the full text of classical literature that general people had not been able to read. At the same time, the illustrations included in works like "The Tales of Ise" were used as models for handwritten picture scrolls and picture books.

As the number of readers increased, printing switched to woodblock printing (seiban) in the mid-17th century. Since Kokatsuji-ban had to be disassembled every few pages, the type had to be reset for reprints, and frequently used, worn-out type would spoil the beauty of the printing, often causing unevenness in the characters. On the other hand, while carving woodblocks had high production costs, the number of copies a block could withstand increased, allowing for multiple reprints, and the woodblocks themselves became the property of the publisher. Furthermore, because the page layout could be used freely, it was suitable for Japanese writing, including Kanbun diacritics, rubi (glosses), and the flowing style (renmentai) of mixed kanji and hiragana.

Once the switch to woodblock printing occurred, new products began to emerge. Pictorial maps of the Tokaido road made in the late 17th century are perhaps one symbol of this. "Shokoku Anken Kaibun no Ezu," whose publication year is unclear, is considered a breakthrough work that placed illustrations alongside the text of preceding text-only travel guides. According to Kingo Imai, who compiled the "Dochuki Shusei," the Ukiyo-e master Juzo Suzuki identified the artist as Hishikawa Moronobu. This Moronobu also handled the illustrations for the 1690 publication "Tokaido Bunken Ezu," which is said to be a pioneer of pictorial maps. Created by Ochikochi Doin, this map of the journey from Kyoto to Edo was produced with attention to direction and scale, and was provided in the form of an "orihon" (folding book) folded zigzag like a scroll. It is a book unique to woodblock printing. In this way, many books in the Edo period, regardless of genre, began to include many illustrations.

Furthermore, Ukiyo-e, of which Moronobu is considered the founder, includes both nikuhitsuga (hand-painted) and prints, but the latter became popular products for "Soshi-ya" (bookstores) selling affordable books in Edo. While Kyoto had many artists who painted by hand, there was a shortage in the burgeoning city of Edo. Since many men, both samurai and townspeople, came to Edo from all over the country for work, inexpensive and visually pleasing pictures were welcomed.

18th Century: After the transition to woodblock printing, there were no major changes in printing technology, but the skills of the carvers and printers improved significantly. What was remarkable in the 18th century was the birth of "Nishiki-e" (brocade prints), which could be called a color revolution. Ukiyo-e were initially colored by hand, and eventually a few colors were layered in printing, but Nishiki-e is said to have begun in 1765 when Suzuki Harunobu was commissioned to create "E-goyomi" (picture calendars showing only the long months of the lunar calendar) with many layered, brilliant colors. These were not commercially sold; the technology was refined during picture calendar exchange parties patronized by the hatamoto Kyosen (Jinshiro Okubo). In this way, technological innovation was nurtured in private editions of Ukiyo-e where production costs were no object, and then spread to general sales. Bookstores that managed skilled craftsmen must have undertaken the publication of books and "Surimono" (single-sheet prints) made for various social gatherings, but in the case of private editions, the names of the people who undertook them do not appear on the books or Ukiyo-e, so the actual situation remains unknown.

In Kitao Masanobu's "Gozonji no Shobaimono" (1782), a book that personified the publishing situation of the time, Nishiki-e is likened to a top-ranking courtesan of Yoshiwara. Less than 20 years after its birth, it was called "Edo-e" and had become a representative souvenir of Edo. The history of Ukiyo-e can be viewed through the collection of Professor Sei'ichiro Takahashi, who was a professor of the history of economics. ("The History of Ukiyo-e Through the Takahashi Collection")

19th Century: In the late 1850s, the precursors of modern movable type began among Rangaku (Dutch Studies) scholars, but meanwhile, woodblock printing technology reached its peak during this period. The skill showed even further brilliance after the publishing controls of the Tenpo Reforms (1842). The Shogunate took notice of the covers of Kusa-zoshi, which used colorful Nishiki-e, and as part of the sumptuary laws, prohibited the coloring of covers, claiming it led to rising prices. At that time, Edo bookstores created very beautiful covers by layering many shades of black ink. Some are beautiful books where the carving and printing techniques are dazzling to the eye, with the addition of "karazuri" (embossing without ink). Later, when the Tenpo Reforms ended prematurely, as if the restraints had been removed, they changed the paper for covers and frontispieces to more expensive ones and created gorgeous, elaborate books.

In 1847, at the Royal Printing Office in Vienna, they used metal type for cursive script and copper plates to replicate one of the books that Siebold had once presented to the Emperor (National Diet Library Collection: Vienna Edition "Ukiyogata Rokumai Byobu"). It was the Kusa-zoshi considered most difficult, "Ukiyogata Rokumai Byobu" (published 1821), written by Ryutei Tanehiko and illustrated by Utagawa Kunisada. It is an astonishing level of enthusiasm, but the lines in the woodblock original are finer, such as in the hairline, than in the copperplate engraving (National Diet Library Collection: Edo Edition "Ukiyogata Rokumai Byobu").

なお、1847年のウィーンの王立印刷所で、かつてシーボルトが皇帝に献上した本の1冊をくずし字の金属活字と銅板で模刻している（国会図書館蔵　ウィーン版『浮世形六枚屏風』）。それは最も難しいと思われる草双紙、柳亭種彦作・歌川国貞画『浮世形六枚屏風（うきよがたろくまいびょうぶ）』（1821年刊）。驚愕すべき熱意だが、髪の生え際など銅版画より線が細かいのが、底本となった木版である（国会図書館蔵　江戸版『浮世形六枚屏風』）。

The 17th century was an era of enlightenment. People sought various information to live in the new Tokugawa era. It is particularly noteworthy that knowledge previously kept secret was made public through books. Once content was made public, it was annotated and summarized. By the end of this century, encyclopedic books aggregating various knowledge began to be produced.

The 18th century was an era of scholarship and Gesaku (playful writing). While academic books, including the previously prohibited Rangaku, were actively published as scholarship was encouraged by the Kyoho Reforms, people engaged in scholarship began to create Gesaku using their knowledge abundantly. Especially in the mid-18th century, when Edo publishing began to surpass that of Kamigata (Kyoto/Osaka), people who admired the genius Hiraga Gennai greatly enjoyed the medium of books with their peers, and those attempts drove the world of books as products.

The 19th century was an era of commerce. With the Kansei Reforms, the samurai class withdrew from published Gesaku, and entertainment books were produced more commercially using commercial writers. Books that had been sold only in Edo expanded their sales channels to Kamigata and nationwide. It was also during this period that the education of the common people progressed as a result of the Kansei Reforms, and general women were added to the intended readership. For example, while cookbooks were made for professional experts (men) in the 17th century, it was only in this century that they began to be conscious of general households.

Finally, the most important thing to consider regarding Edo publishing is the Shogunate's publishing controls. Books that were widely sold and read (regardless of whether they were printed or handwritten) were subject to regulation, and after the Kyoho Reforms, the Kabunakama (guilds) authorized by the Shogunate also became organizations that censored for violations of those prohibitions.

The foundational law for subsequent publishing regulations was that of the Kyoho Reforms in 1722. Specifically: (1) Do not publish reckless heterodoxies regarding matters that have become social common sense. (2) Erotic books are banned. (3) Do not write incorrect things about people's lineages or ancestors (do not create causes for conflict). (4) Clearly state the names of the producers. (5) Mention of Gongen-sama (Ieyasu) or the Ruling House (Tokugawa) is unnecessary. — Adhere to the above and undergo censorship.

Based on this, the Kansei and Tenpo Reforms added language regarding sumptuary laws, and regulations were gradually strengthened, including the censorship organizations. In particular, regarding the political topics of the time implied by (5), punishments were meted out to Hayashi Shihei's "Kaikoku Heidan" (1791), which made important proposals regarding coastal defense; Kusa-zoshi that poked fun at the fall of Tanuma Okitsugu and celebrated the appearance of Matsudaira Sadanobu; and Nanpo's "Hokkai Idan" (a handwritten "jitsuroku-tai" novel, 1808), which rewritten the 1806-7 Russian attacks on Ezo (the Bunka Invasion) as a great victory for the Japanese military. Even if it seemed to benefit the Tokugawa, one must not mention matters related to the Ruling House.

There is a risk of misreading if these prohibitions are not kept in mind. For example, immediately after the Tenpo Reforms, Ukiyo-e using classical literature as material were produced, but it is very dangerous to read them simply as pictorial explanations of the classics. This is because the Tenpo Reforms prohibited Kabuki actors, courtesans, and female entertainers—the previous cash-cow subjects—from Ukiyo-e and Kusa-zoshi, and these were produced as substitute "bijin-ga" (pictures of beautiful women). Utagawa Toyokuni III's (Kunisada I) "Hyakunin Isshu Esho" pretended to be a serious commentary immediately after the reforms when enforcement was strict, but gradually the "Genji-ko" icon from Ryutei Tanehiko's "Nise Murasaki Inaka Genji"—which had been banned in the Tenpo Reforms and illustrated by the same artist—was featured, and the world of that book became more pronounced. Also, if Edo-period palace maids are depicted in titles hinting at the Tale of Genji, such as Toyokuni III's "Ima Genji Nishiki-e Awase" or his disciple Kunisada II's "Murasaki Shikibu Genji Karuta," it is almost certainly a world derived from "Nise Murasaki Inaka Genji," where the Tale of Genji, the Onin War, and contemporary Edo are triple-exposed. As is the case with Ningyo Joruri and Kabuki, stories of the Tokugawa era were often disguised as other eras in consideration of prohibitions; unless one reads Edo-period commercial works while understanding these storytelling conventions unique to the Edo period and confirming the regulations and trends of the time, one will fall into the pitfall of great misreading.

The reason for the banning of "Nise Murasaki Inaka Genji" remained unknown for a long time, but in recent years, research by Mr. Satoru Sato using high-resolution microscopes has shed some light. Amidst the sumptuary laws, it was using exceptionally high-quality paper. This is one of the results of research integrating the humanities and sciences.

As a supplementary lecture, I am providing a link to a video where I discuss reading characters in Edo-period books and the recent trend of using AI to read cursive script ("Classical Texts and Kuzushiji").

補講として、江戸時代の本の文字を読むこと、近年盛んなくずし字をAIに読ませることなどについて述べた動画のリンクを置く（「古典籍・くずし字」）。