[Special Feature: On "On the Imperial Household"] Deepening Through the Years, Unwavering—The Spirit of Keio University During the Post-War Reconstruction Period

Image: Mita Campus in the late 1940s, viewed from the ruins of the Public Speaking Hall (Daikodo)

When discussing the Imperial Family of the Heisei era, the presence of former President Shinzo Koizumi is often mentioned. In April 1946, Koizumi was appointed as a consultant for the education of the Crown Prince, becoming a full-time consultant in 1949, and devoted himself to the education of His Imperial Highness Crown Prince Akihito. Later, during imperial lectures, he used "On the Imperial Household," written by Yukichi Fukuzawa in 1882, and they took turns reading it aloud. "On the Imperial Household" presents the image of the Emperor as a symbol of the people in a modern sense, stating that "The Imperial Household is something outside of politics and society" and "The Imperial Household alone is an eternal spring; when the people look up to it, they should feel a sense of serene harmony."

The early post-war period of the late 1940s was an era when the country sought reconstruction from defeat, and social values—from family and education to the Imperial Family—were required to undergo a major transformation. In a nation that values individual freedom, equality, and independence, there must have been many who struggled with how to position the Imperial Family.

So, how did the people of the Keio Gijuku Shachu welcome the new era after the defeat? Considering the consciousness of the people at the Juku in the late 1940s—the "atmosphere of Mita," so to speak—is meaningful for understanding that era. It also helps us understand that the vision of society and the Imperial Family in the new era envisioned by Koizumi was not something special to him alone, nor something he devised merely as a response to the times, but something more natural.

The damage suffered by Keio University during the last war was immense. Many school buildings and hospital wards in Mita and Shinanomachi were destroyed by air raids, and Hiyoshi, which was intended to be a base for reconstruction, was requisitioned by the U.S. military. Above all, many Keio students and Keio University alumni died in battle. After the surrender, many were still in foreign lands and unable to return home.

Of course, regardless of the scale of the damage, it was an era when everyone faced various hardships and sorrows and was preoccupied with their immediate lives. However, the people of the Juku had a slightly different sensation than others.

For example, Tokusaburo Watanabe, who was a teacher at the Yochisha Elementary School, later stated the following in an essay titled "Group Evacuation, Yochisha, and the Juku Spirit" (included in Watanabe's "Yukichi Fukuzawa's Recommendation for Home Education").

"I believe that at that time, anyone involved with the Juku felt that while the defeat was unpleasant, they were happy that extreme nationalism was removed, allowing the original spirit of the Juku to become active."

He also wrote, "Since the basis of old values was lost, many schools in society seemed to have fallen into confusion, not knowing what to do," but "Yochisha—Keio University—was fortunately unrelated to such confusion. I believe this is because the Juku spirit lives on not only in the school but also among the parents." Using a survey of class parents conducted in February 1946 as an example, he added the fact that parents also trusted the Juku spirit since Yukichi Fukuzawa. For instance, a parent who was a Keio University alumnus reportedly replied, "It is truly gratifying that the academic style of Keio University was more liberal and democratic than any other."

Watanabe also recalled, "I did not think I had to change myself drastically just because the war ended; rather, I felt that the time had come when Yukichi Fukuzawa's education could be realized publicly" (Yochisha Shimbun, No. 774).

This sensation was also shared by Keio University alumni who had long been away from the Juku. For example, I once interviewed Mr. Gihei Konno, who graduated in 1932, worked for Meiji Life Insurance, and later compiled the "Biography of Taizo Abe: Founder of Life Insurance in Japan" and the history of Kojunsha, while running a cassette tape. In that interview, Konno reminisced as follows:

"(Until the end of the war) private schools were looked down upon. It had to be a government school. Then the war ended, and on the NHK broadcast in the morning, they would broadcast, 'It is said that heaven does not create one man above or below another man. Any existing distinction between the wise and the stupid, between the rich and the poor, comes down to a matter of education.' It started from there every time. (Omitted) When I visited a senior of mine, he was very happy, saying that the era of Keio has finally come, and now is the time for Yukichi Fukuzawa's spirit to be put to use. Common sense-wise, it was no longer the era of government schools but the era of Fukuzawa; that became the general consensus" (Yukichi, Journal of the Fukuzawa Research Society at Keio Senior High School, No. 6).

Despite carrying various sorrows and struggling with post-war reconstruction, the people of the Juku had a sense that their era had finally arrived.

To understand the feeling that their era had finally come, it is necessary to know what kind of experiences the people of the Juku had in the preceding era.

Watanabe tells of his experience leading Yochisha students at an evacuation school. At the evacuation site, they borrowed classrooms from a local elementary school for lessons. He said he was astonished to see the students of that school being scolded by their teacher to salute every time they entered or left the classroom during cleaning.

"In the world of that time, under the banner of 'Training Imperial Citizens,' saluting was popular everywhere, but I was stunned by this. Such a ridiculous thing was unthinkable at Yochisha. No matter how much it was wartime, Yochisha education was more human, rational, and smart. I felt I saw the Juku spirit there."

As militarism seeped into everything around them, they became conscious of the spirit and individuality of the Juku.

Not only that, but in the 1930s and 40s, the "Theory of Eradicating Fukuzawa's Thought" gradually began to circulate, and Keio University came to be seen almost as a traitor to the state, being the school of Yukichi Fukuzawa, who introduced Western liberalism to Japan.

For example, looking at the section "The Intellectual World of Meiji and the Imperial Rescript on Education" in the textbook "History of Our Country" for the Army Preparatory Officer School, compiled by Professor Shin Hiraizumi of Tokyo Imperial University, phrases like the following appear: "The spirit of the Meiji Restoration rapidly began to crumble as Western thought permeated after 1872," "The one who took the lead in this was Yukichi Fukuzawa," and "The one that exerted the most profound influence (omitted) was 'An Encouragement of Learning'." In short, it was a critique of Yukichi Fukuzawa's ideas of freedom and equality that respect individual independence, strictly warning and criticizing that "The intent of this book is completely contrary to our country's ancient views," and "If this is carried to its logical conclusion, the relationship between lord and subject is ultimately a matter of convenience," and "It is natural that fundamental values will be overturned." Consequently, some Keio students who joined the Army were slapped or struck with bamboo swords by superiors influenced by these views, who, upon learning they were Keio students, vowed to "beat them back into shape."

Publishers also began to fear censorship and requested deletions of Fukuzawa's works in advance. For example, when "Selected Works of Fukuzawa" was published in 1937 as a supplementary reader for the University Preparatory Course, the inclusion of "On the Imperial Household" was censored by the Thought Bureau of the Ministry of Education, which stated it was not appropriate reading for young students and ordered it to be deleted from subsequent editions and replaced with something else.

Masafumi Tomita, a leading scholar of Fukuzawa and the lyricist of the Juku-ka, described the situation shown by these examples as follows. This is the end of "Yukichi Fukuzawa: A Teacher of Humanity," published in "The New Elementary School" (September 1950) for elementary school teachers.

"While those who slandered, reviled, and attacked this giant—who taught our people the dignity of human rights, explained the principles of freedom, showed the great cause of independence, and opened the high road to democracy—prevailed with their clever-looking faces, and while those who followed their lead appeared in succession, Japan's fate plummeted like a stone rolling down a steep slope. And when people finally realized and tried to re-evaluate his true worth, the Japan that Fukuzawa and many other predecessors had built with painstaking effort had already returned to the starting point."

After the defeat, when it was difficult to determine the country's direction, many people associated with the Juku were among those Prime Minister Shigeru Yoshida relied on. It is well known that his trust in Shinzo Koizumi remained great throughout his life, but there were others, such as Takuzo Itakura, who lectured on politics and international law in the Faculty of Law and supported the "Jiji Shimpo"; Kiyoshi Nagata, who lectured on public finance in the Faculty of Economics and would serve as an advisor to the Director-General of the Economic Stabilization Board; and Tomoo Maki, a Vice-President during President Koizumi's tenure who later became the first president of the National Defense Academy. Furthermore, Sei'ichiro Takahashi, who served as Acting President from April 1946 to January 1947 in place of Koizumi (who was recuperating from severe burns sustained in an air raid), served as Minister of Education in the Yoshida Cabinet and realized the enactment of the Fundamental Law of Education.

The circumstances of how Takahashi became Minister of Education are described in detail in "Before, During, and After the War" by Taro Takemi, a graduate of the Keio School of Medicine who long served as the president of the Japan Medical Association. Takemi was related to Shigeru Yoshida, and Yoshida often stopped by Takemi's clinic.

When the Showa Emperor asked Minister of Education Kotaro Tanaka how the relationship between the Imperial Family and the people should be in a democratic society, Tanaka only replied, "I think it is a matter to be considered in the future." Consequently, Yoshida was also called and asked, "What does the Prime Minister think?" and reportedly withdrew in distress. Takemi heard about this and mentioned that Yukichi Fukuzawa's "On the Imperial Household" applied to Japan's current situation. Yoshida then said he wanted to read it immediately and had Takemi go to his home in Kashiwa in a prime ministerial car to retrieve it. After reading it for several hours on the spot, he decided he wanted to ask Shinzo Koizumi to be the Minister of Education. However, since Koizumi had not recovered his health from the severe burns, Yoshida then considered Takahashi and repeatedly persuaded him.

Takahashi's term of office was only four months, from January 31, 1947, until the resignation of the Yoshida Cabinet on May 24, but during that time, he laid the foundation for new post-war education with the promulgation and enforcement of the Fundamental Law of Education and the School Education Law. He also managed to implement the 6-3 system, which changed compulsory education from six years of elementary school to nine years of elementary and junior high school, despite a strong atmosphere of opposition within the cabinet for financial reasons.

Materials from Takahashi's time as Minister of Education were introduced in Volume 34 of "Modern Japanese Studies" published last year (Daiki Shiraishi, "Materials Related to Sei'ichiro Takahashi's Educational Administration"), and they are quite interesting. For example, in his inaugural address to the staff of the Ministry of Education, he stated the following:

"In this regard, what I frequently recall and find deeply regrettable is that the principle of independence and self-respect, which the great Meiji pioneer Yukichi Fukuzawa advocated for many years, was not widely accepted by the world. Based on this principle of independence and self-respect, the document drafted by Tokujirō Obata and other direct disciples of the master (omitted) called 'Shūshin Yōryō: Fukuzawa's Moral Code' was buried by a chorus of criticism and attacks at the time of its announcement, and ultimately failed to become a force governing the era."

Furthermore, he spoke about the period from the government's revival of Confucianism after the Political Crisis of 1881 until the defeat in the war:

"Yukichi Fukuzawa and the seniors of Keio University bravely fought against bureaucracy in education; however, they were ultimately not followed by others, and in the end, we saw a world dominated by militarism and ultra-nationalism. (Omitted) The lost 60 years in the history of education are truly to be regretted."

At that time, Takahashi cited a passage from Fukuzawa's "Mangen" (Idle Talk), where he said that if one wanted to suppress liberal and democratic thought, one might as well close all the schools in Japan and have the students engage in picking up horse manure or fodder. Takahashi bitingly remarked that during the war, "Just as the master's 'Mangen' suggested, schoolchildren were made to abandon their studies and engage in cutting fodder."

He concluded by saying, "I have accepted this great responsibility, convinced that the time has come to actually provide the education of independence and self-respect that this school has advocated for many years."

During his tenure, Takahashi explained the enactment of the Fundamental Law of Education to the Showa Emperor and also had the opportunity to give an imperial lecture on "On the Imperial Household." On that occasion, His Majesty expressed a desire to read "Fukuzawa's 'On the Imperial Household' and 'On Reverence for the Emperor'," so Takahashi obtained the first editions from the Juku library and lent them to him, and he reportedly read them through immediately.

During that imperial lecture, His Majesty asked about "the state of the Emperor system under democracy and why the Imperial Rescript on Education is not acceptable as a standard for virtues." Takahashi reportedly explained using "On the Imperial Household" and stated the significance of the preamble of the Fundamental Law of Education, saying that people's morals and beliefs arise from within and are not something to be imposed commandingly from above. These circumstances are recorded by Toshio Yamamoto and Shin Shimizu in the Sei'ichiro Takahashi memorial issue of the "Mita-hyoron" (No. 826). Yamamoto was an educational scholar who served as President Koizumi's secretary, and Shimizu was the political and economic editor of "Jiji Shimpo" centered on Itakura after the war.

The spirit of the people of the Keio Gijuku Shachu at that time, which I have introduced so far, was most clearly expressed at the 90th anniversary commemorative ceremony held in 1947 (calculated by the traditional counting method). This commemorative ceremony also provided momentum toward reconstruction after the emergency responses following the end of the war the previous year.

That spirit is well expressed in the address by President Kōji Ushioda.

"Keio University has always, to the last, remained in the private sector, standing with the people to advocate and practice independence and self-respect. We took the lead in striving to eradicate feudal thought among the people and plant the spirit of independence and self-respect. We have fought against the power of official authority and military cliques, and fought for freedom and civil rights."

He then pointed out that Japan had "taken the first step toward rebirth as a democratic nation" and that the new Constitution and the Fundamental Law of Education contained the principles the Juku had been advocating, stating:

"At this time, it is clear that the Juku must lead the people with this traditional spirit. We recognize that on the occasion of this 90th anniversary festival, we have the most natural right and are charged with the duty to embark on a great enlightenment movement for the people."

The "Keio Sanka," composed by xylophonist and Keio alumnus Yoichi Hiraoka for the 90th anniversary festival and sung in chorus at the end of the ceremony, also reflects this. The spirit contained in the first verse, "With our youthful power, let us build the ideal homeland," can be understood with even more realism when one knows this awareness of the era.

Sei'ichiro Takahashi also delivered a congratulatory speech as Minister of Education at this ceremony. In it, he spoke in connection with the Fundamental Law of Education as follows:

"In 1900, in the final years of Yukichi Fukuzawa's life, the 'Shūshin Yōryō' was issued. I believe that the spirit contained within it—namely, the principle of independence and self-respect—is consistent with the principle stated in the Fundamental Law of Education: that the purpose of education lies in the completion of personality, and that the educational system under democratic politics must be based on the recognition of individual dignity and value."

In his youth, Takahashi had joined and lectured in various places during a lecture tour conducted by the Juku to "strive for the widespread dissemination of the principle of independence and self-respect that forms the core of 'Shūshin Yōryō'" (Takahashi, "The Lecture Tour of 1908," included in "Essays on Keio University") against a world solely devoted to the Imperial Rescript on Education.

Looking at it this way, it becomes clear that the spirit of the people at the Juku in the late 1940s after the war was not something forced out amidst a major shift in social value standards, but rather a consistent axis from the time of Yukichi Fukuzawa that was naturally endowed within each of their hearts. It is exactly the "Deepening through the years, unwavering" of the third verse of the Juku-ka (established in 1941).

In a freshman welcome pamphlet of the All-Keio Student Federation (Zen-Kei-Ren), presumably from 1949, "To the New Students" written by Kōji Ushioda for Keio students who had come to Tokyo from all over the country to enroll was published. This well illustrates that naturally endowed axis and its meaning, so I would like to introduce the full text.

Regarding Takahashi, Jiro Arimitsu, who was the Administrative Vice-Minister during Takahashi's time as Minister of Education, recalled in a roundtable discussion in the memorial issue of "Mita-hyoron":

"Mr. Takahashi clearly held views that led the trends of the times, such as the state of the Imperial Family under democracy and the response to the Imperial Rescript on Education. He mentioned that he felt no resistance at all to the enactment of the Fundamental Law of Education, saying that such things were commonly accepted at Keio."

Looking at it this way, for those associated with the Juku, including Koizumi and Takahashi, as well as for Shigeru Yoshida and others who sympathized with their ideas, there was likely no sense of contradiction in the coexistence of a society of freedom and equality with the Imperial Family as a symbol of the people.

Thanks to the single axis since Yukichi Fukuzawa, one can know the tendencies of an era by looking at how the master is evaluated in society. In that sense, even as times change, the significance of "On the Imperial Household" and the roles played by Takahashi, Koizumi, and others will not diminish. Furthermore, we should once again cherish the spirit of the people of the Juku as seen so clearly in the immediate post-war period.

福澤先生以来の１つの軸があるお蔭で、先生が社会でどう評価されるかを見れば、その時代の傾向を知ることが出来る。その意味でも、時代が代わっても『帝室論』も、高橋、小泉らの果たした役割も、意義が小さくなることは無いであろう。そしてまた、戦後間もない時代に端的に見られる塾の人達の気概を改めて大切にしたいものである。