Hiroe Yamaguchi

Yukichi Fukuzawa detested the old customs of his hometown, Nakatsu, as he wrote in "The Autobiography of Fukuzawa Yukichi" that "the feudal system is my father's mortal enemy." It can be said that the inequality and irrationality he experienced in Nakatsu due to class disparities and superstitions became the root of Fukuzawa's thought. On the other hand, among the high-ranking samurai and civil officials actually involved in the administration of the Nakatsu Domain, there were those in the "Fukuzawa faction" who resonated with him and promoted the modernization of Nakatsu. Through their efforts, Nakatsu's education, finance, and infrastructure were developed, and Fukuzawa himself spared no effort in contributing to Nakatsu's development. Hiroe Yamaguchi, introduced here, was one of the members of this "Fukuzawa faction" in Nakatsu.

Hiroe Yamaguchi's former name was Hiromon. Born in Nakatsu Takajomachi in 1824 (Bunsei 7), he was about 10 years older than Fukuzawa. Near the Yamaguchi residence were the homes of the Otabe family, into which Fukuzawa's sister Rei had married, and Shozan Shiraishi, Fukuzawa's teacher of Chinese classics. The Yamaguchi residence was about a 10-minute walk from the Fukuzawa residence, and it is easy to imagine that the two families had deep interactions. Furthermore, Hiroe's wife, Den, was the daughter of Rihachi Tojo, the brother of Fukuzawa's father Hyakusuke, making her Fukuzawa's first cousin. The Yamaguchi family held the rank of Tomokosho-kaku, with a family stipend of 15 koku and rations for three people, a social standing similar to that of the Fukuzawa family. It appears that their ancestors could not maintain the household budget through their duties as archery instructors alone, so they established a tea garden and earned income through tea production.

Hiroe's father, Chozaemon Chikanori, was said to be a person of integrity who excelled in martial arts and calligraphy. His skill with the brush led to his appointment as an official scribe (Goyo-shoyaku), but his fastidiousness made it difficult for him to fit into the world of officialdom, and he was later transferred to the position of observer at the domain school, Shinshukan. However, during his duties as a supervisor at Shinshukan, he demanded impartial punishment for a theft committed by the children of high-ranking samurai studying there. This resulted in a conflict with the domain's upper management, leading to Chozaemon's punishment. On the charge of attempting to frame high-ranking samurai with false statements, Chozaemon was ordered into retirement and exile, suffering the misfortune of moving to Usa.

At that time, Hiroe, who was only 13 years old, inherited the headship of the family, but the punishment included a 50% reduction in the family stipend, plunging the Yamaguchi family into extreme poverty. While performing his public duties, Hiroe worked at a side job at night to help the family finances, taking on the difficult task of steering the household as its head despite his youth.

Hiroe inherited his father's talent for martial arts and calligraphy, but unlike his father, who struggled with Chinese classics, he was said to be good at academics. After being selected for the same official scribe position as his father due to his skill with the brush, at age 17, Hiroe was appointed as a Katame-banyaku (gatekeeper) responsible for guarding the gates of Nakatsu Castle. The duty of the Katame-banyaku was strictly guarding; below them was a rank called "Kaihei-ban" responsible for opening and closing the gates, a task performed by ashigaru (foot soldiers). However, a change was made to include the opening and closing of the gates in the duties of the Katame-banyaku, which increased the dissatisfaction of the lower-ranking samurai. Furthermore, when the name of the Katame-banyaku was changed to "Kaihei-ban," which felt like a lower rank, the dissatisfaction of the lower-ranking samurai exploded. In 1853 (Kaei 6), the "Okatame-ban Incident" broke out—a disturbance between high-ranking and lower-ranking samurai that resulted in Shozan Shiraishi receiving the punishment of permanent dismissal.

In the autobiography of Hiroe's son Hanshichi, "The Elder of Oita Prefecture: Mr. Yamaguchi," it is recorded that Hiroe and Fukuzawa's older brother Sannosuke were also punished in connection with the Okatame-ban Incident, but there are discrepancies in the dates, and the details are not certain. However, it is certain that Hiroe was ordered into house arrest for two years for inciting lower-ranking samurai while serving as a gatekeeper. Therefore, it is thought that the tense situation surrounding the gatekeeper duties and class disparities continued for over a decade, likely exerting a great influence on Fukuzawa and Hiroe.

Hiroe was placed under house arrest at home due to his young age, but during his confinement, the Confucian scholar Mutsuo Teshima began teaching him at his home. Teshima was the older brother of Engan Hashimoto, a Confucian scholar who married the younger sister of Fukuzawa's mother, Jun. Teshima had educated Hiroe before, but pitying the fact that he was only 17 and still needed education, he petitioned the domain and obtained permission for home instruction. Later, Hiroe recalled that his proficiency in writing was thanks to what he learned at this time.

A few years after his house arrest ended, Hiroe became an "Accounting Clerk" (Kaikei-shori), his first role in finance. Hiroe seemed to be skilled at handling numbers and was promoted steadily to the position of "Assistant to the Chief Magistrate" (Motojime-bugyo Hojo-yaku)—a role similar to a modern-day deputy director of a finance bureau—taking actual control of the domain's finances. As seen from the fact that Fukuzawa's father Hyakusuke struggled to raise funds as a rice broker in Osaka, the financial situation of the Nakatsu Domain continued to deteriorate. Furthermore, amid the chaos of the end of the Edo period, the value of domain notes plummeted, and the domain was so impoverished that borrowing money became difficult. Hiroe told the domain samurai to refrain from waste to reduce expenses, and he went to Osaka to persuade money changers and others. His hard work paid off, and after successfully securing loans, he used that money as a reserve for the exchange of domain notes, changing the previously limited exchange of notes to an unlimited one.

Through this policy, the credit of the domain notes was restored, and Hiroe's achievements were recognized, leading to his appointment as Finance Magistrate (Kanjo-bugyo). Around this time, voices began to rise within the Nakatsu Domain to remove old customs and appoint personnel based on ability, and individuals with an understanding of Western studies, such as Hozan Kuwana and Koen Tsuda, began to lead the domain administration. Gaining their trust, Hiroe made great strides, and upon being appointed District Magistrate (Gori-bugyo), he pushed forward policies to encourage new industry. As a result of these achievements, his family stipend was increased, and he came to receive more than double his previous salary.

Hiroe used the money he earned to repay the debts from the time of his father's downfall and renovated his home. At that time in the Nakatsu castle town, the size of a house was determined by rank. For Hiroe's rank, a house was typically about 20 to 25 tsubo, but by 1867 (Keio 3), his house had reportedly doubled in size. This conveys how highly Hiroe was valued and how the class disparities in the Nakatsu Domain were being improved.

Even after the era name was changed to Meiji, Hiroe continued to be involved in government affairs. When the former domain lord Masayuki Okudaira was appointed as domain governor, Hiroe, as a junior councilor (Shosanshi), handled the handover of public duties to Kokura Prefecture following the abolition of domains and establishment of prefectures, and he appears to have negotiated the price of old domain notes with the Ministry of Finance. However, after the liquidation of the Nakatsu Domain was completed, he declined a request to serve in Kokura Prefecture and chose a path of active involvement as a private citizen rather than a public official. It was during this period that he changed his name from Hiromon to Hiroe. His son Hanshichi had entered Keio University in 1869 (Meiji 2), and in 1873 (Meiji 3), Hiroe also moved to Tokyo, where he interacted with Yuteki Hayashi and Michita Nakamura and was involved with the Maruzen Company. However, in less than two years, he returned to Nakatsu at the request of Suketaro Shimazu.

Shortly after returning to Nakatsu, he became the primary advocate for the reconstruction of the Yamaguni Road, which led from Nakatsu through Yabakei to Hita, and he devoted himself to the completion of the road. The shogunal territory of Hita was a commercially important point for Nakatsu, but poor transportation was hindering the development of the Nakatsu castle town and Yabakei, so he completed the road in about three years. The construction costs were covered by the stipend bonds of former Nakatsu samurai and donations from Suketaro Shimazu and others, and it is said that no government subsidies were received. Regarding logistics between Nakatsu and Hita, he was often relied upon even after the road's completion, and he also provided counsel to Hozan Kuwana, who was serving as the district head of Hita. At the Nakatsu City School, which was established in Nakatsu based on Fukuzawa's proposal, Hiroe was involved in its management as an organizer. The Nakatsu City School was operated using the stipend of the former domain lord Okudaira family and funds from an organization called Tenpo Gisha, a mutual aid organization for former Nakatsu samurai. Hiroe, who was well-versed in the finances of the Nakatsu Domain, must have been an indispensable member.

Hiroe continued to devote himself to the modernization of Nakatsu through industry and banking from a private standpoint. He put particular effort into the sericulture industry, establishing the Suehiro Company, a silk reeling company funded by Tenpo Gisha, and working to spread knowledge of sericulture in Nakatsu. Fukuzawa also reported to Hiroe regarding the acceptance of female silk-reeling trainees at the Tomioka Silk Mill, and a long letter remains at Fukuzawa's former residence in Nakatsu in which Hiroe consults with Tokujirō Obata about sericulture. In 1878 (Meiji 11), he established the 78th National Bank based on the stipend bonds of former samurai and became its president. The 78th National Bank flourished by providing convenience to local commercial and industrial businesses, but its performance gradually declined, and it was sold to Yasuda Bank in 1888 (Meiji 21). On this occasion, Hiroe retired, and while occasionally handling the assets of the Okudaira family, he enjoyed his remaining years practicing calligraphy. He passed away in 1898 (Meiji 31) at the age of 71. Hiroe's tombstone still exists at Jufuku-ji Temple in Nakatsu.

Fukuzawa and Hiroe maintained a long friendship, and nearly 30 letters from Fukuzawa to Hiroe have been identified. The contents of the letters often involve consultations on matters concerning Nakatsu, such as the Nakatsu City School and Tenpo Gisha, and requests such as wanting him to settle conflicts between samurai families peacefully or to handle payments to the Otabe family on his behalf, suggesting a deep relationship of trust between the two. Although Fukuzawa and Hiroe had different academic backgrounds, they shared commonalities such as their upbringing, their unfortunate experiences as lower-ranking samurai, and a lack of resistance to matters concerning money, which was considered base in Confucian thought. Furthermore, as mentioned earlier, it is interesting that they both chose to pursue private paths decisively after the Restoration. It is not certain when Fukuzawa and Hiroe first met, but since Hiroe was a friend of Fukuzawa's older brother Sannosuke, he may have been introduced by Sannosuke.

Many of Yukichi's letters to Hiroe clearly show Yukichi's naturally unpretentious way of speaking. In a letter dated May 18, 1884 (Meiji 17), he answers an inquiry from Hiroe about the failure of the Maruya Bank. Regarding the failure of the Maruya Bank, he calls it "truly an unspeakable state of affairs," and the letter clearly conveys his frustration as he notes that the funds of the domain lord Okudaira family might suffer losses, and the losses to the Fukuzawa family's funds would be even higher. Regarding Hayashi, who was responsible for the Maruya Bank, he bluntly states, "Hayashi is a great fool," and writes in a strong tone, "To have entrusted money to this great fool and remained unconcerned was also the act of a great fool," making it easy to imagine Fukuzawa's exasperation.