Hidetaro Imaizumi

Image: Collection of the Keio University Fukuzawa Memorial Center for Modern Japanese Studies

Something was missing. Fukuzawa, who founded the "Jiji Shinpo" in 1882 (Meiji 15), seemed to feel this way. Two years later, in March 1884, a letter he sent to his sons Ichitaro and Sutejiro, who were studying abroad, contained the following passage.

"Mr. Hide Imaizumi is scheduled to graduate this April, and we have had an informal talk about him studying illustrations for the newspaper. I believe it is a great defect that those called Japan's major newspapers do not include illustrations. If Jiji Shinpo can secure a bit more funding, we have discussed that we must include illustrations, just like Western newspapers."

As this letter suggests, what Fukuzawa felt was missing was the effort to make the newspaper pages easier to understand by adding illustrations, "just like Western newspapers." The person expected to fill that void was "Mr. Hide," Hidetaro Imaizumi.

Hidetaro was born in Nakatsu in 1865 (Keio 1) as the eldest son of Gunji Imaizumi and Tou. Gunji passed away that same year, and Tou raised him as a single mother. Tou's younger sister was Kin, Fukuzawa's wife. Therefore, Hidetaro was Fukuzawa's nephew-in-law.

In 1870 (Meiji 3), Fukuzawa returned to Nakatsu and then went back to Tokyo with his mother, Jun. At that time, Tou and Hidetaro also went with them. The two lived in the Fukuzawa residence, and Hidetaro spent his time with Fukuzawa's children like a brother.

Hidetaro entered the Yochisha Elementary School in 1873 and studied at Keio University. He was originally supposed to graduate in 1882, but he suffered a major injury, losing five or six front teeth after falling from a horse. Fukuzawa, who enjoyed horseback riding as a hobby, reportedly stopped riding after seeing Hidetaro's fall. Due to this injury, Hidetaro's graduation was delayed until April 1884, as mentioned in the previous letter.

Fukuzawa, who had high hopes for Hidetaro's artistic talent, published a nishiki-e (colored woodblock print) titled "Beijing Yume-makura" (Beijing Dream Pillow) in September 1884, following the outbreak of the Sino-French War in June of that year. Hidetaro was in charge of the illustrations. The composition depicts a large Qing Chinese man in the foreground, with the French army attacking at his feet (Taiwan). However, the Qing man pays no mind and naps while smoking opium, while Western powers (Germany, Russia, the US, and Britain) watch on.

The captions for the illustrations were written by Fukuzawa, describing the intentions of various countries, including the Qing Dynasty, with witty dialogue. Around the same time, Fukuzawa was also criticizing the Qing Dynasty in "Jiji Shinpo" editorials for its lack of a sense of crisis regarding the Western powers' expansion into Asia; there is a correlation between those arguments and "Beijing Yume-makura." Fukuzawa, who idealized Western newspapers that reported facts clearly with illustrations, must have felt hopeful after gaining Hidetaro as his right-hand man.

However, the following month, Hidetaro temporarily left Fukuzawa and traveled to Korea.

In Korea, since the Imo Incident of 1882, there had been a continuing conflict between the conservative faction, which sought to align with the Qing Dynasty, and the enlightenment faction, which aimed for bold Western-style reforms using Japan's modernization as a reference. Fukuzawa had been supporting the enlightenment faction since accepting Korean students to the Juku in 1881. When Hidetaro went to Korea, it is said that Fukuzawa's disciple, Kakugoro Inoue, was engaged in the newspaper business in Seoul, aiming to spread new Western knowledge widely in Korea while serving as a liaison with Fukuzawa. When Inoue consulted Fukuzawa about the difficulty of finding illustrators in Korea, Fukuzawa recommended Hidetaro, leading to his departure for Korea.

However, in December, the Gapsin Coup broke out in Korea. Many members of the enlightenment faction were killed, and there were also casualties among Japanese residents who were seen as supporting the faction. Hidetaro and Kakugoro narrowly escaped and were able to return to Tokyo.

After returning to Japan, Hidetaro decided to head to San Francisco in March 1885. He went to the United States with a desire to try drawing Western-style satirical illustrations.

In Japan, there had been a satirical illustration boom at the end of the Edo period. Famines and earthquakes occurred, and the rise in prices accompanying the start of trade with Western countries dealt a further blow to the lives of the common people. Sharp criticism of the public authorities, who could not dispel people's anxieties, was expressed through satirical illustrations, gaining support from the masses. The depiction methods were often influenced by Toba-e, which was popular in Osaka in the 18th century, using simplified and exaggerated drawings. For this reason, satirical illustrations were sometimes called "Toba-e."

On the other hand, Western satirical illustrations also began entering Japan with the start of trade. Unlike the satirical illustrations of the late Edo period, they were characterized by direct depictions, such as using caricatures. "The Japan Punch," founded by the Englishman Wirgman in the Yokohama settlement in 1862 (Bunkyu 2), was modeled after the popular satirical magazine "Punch" from his home country. It was also read by Japanese people, and eventually, a habit developed of calling satirical illustrations "Ponchi-e" (a corrupted pronunciation of "Punch"). The aforementioned "Beijing Yume-makura" was also advertised as a "Ponchi-e" in "Jiji Shinpo."

Upon arriving in San Francisco, Hidetaro visited two or three newspaper companies and asked if he could work as a trainee for satirical illustrations. However, he was turned down on the grounds that satirical illustrations cannot be drawn without an understanding of the country's customs and habits. Hidetaro was forced to give up and instead joined the management of Kai Shoten (a Japanese general store) opened there around that time by Orie Kai, a disciple of Fukuzawa. His work performance was excellent, and he later became the San Francisco branch manager. Fukuzawa also praised him as "the most useful person in Kai Shoten."

In February 1890 (Meiji 23), Hidetaro returned to Japan. In a letter Fukuzawa sent to Hiroe Yamaguchi (a banker in Nakatsu) in July of the same year, there is a mention that he heard from Imaizumi that Kai's business was difficult, so the deterioration of Kai Shoten's management may have been one reason. With this return, he finally joined Jiji Shinpo.

In Hidetaro's later collection of essays, "Ippyo Zatsuwa" (Ippyo was Hidetaro's pen name), there is a memoir from shortly after he joined the company. At first, he was engaged in accounting work, and on the side, he would draw if he had an idea. After that, he gained experience for a year or two, and once he understood the logic of "manga," he decided to specialize in it.

What is noteworthy here is the word "manga." From 1814 (Bunka 11), Katsushika Hokusai published "Hokusai Manga," a collection of sketches featuring subjects such as nature and people. The word "manga" already existed, but in the Edo period, it referred to "manpitsu-ga," or drawings made as they came to mind.

In contrast, the "manga" used by Hidetaro referred to satirical illustrations themselves. As mentioned earlier, in Meiji-era Japan, satirical illustrations were called "Toba-e" or "Ponchi-e." In this context, Hidetaro dared to use the word "manga."

Why "manga"? Hidetaro first had the English word "caricature" in mind, and he seems to have chosen it as the translation. The reason for the choice of the word is not certain. However, the fact that he went out of his way to propose a different name suggests Hidetaro's determination to aim for a new type of satirical illustration different from the conventional ones.

Furthermore, many of the illustrations and satirical drawings in "Jiji Shinpo" do not specify the author. Among them, there are works marked with a gourd symbol. Since this mark is the same as Hidetaro's signature seen in "Ippyo Zatsuwa," it is thought that works with the gourd mark are likely by Hidetaro.

The following work published in "Jiji Shinpo" on May 11, 1891, is one of them. Although there are parts that differ from reality, it is designed to reflect Hidetaro's life, and the protagonist opens a business in the seventh panel, calling himself a "US Manga Artist." This work reveals Hidetaro's determination to make a living from "manga."

Incidentally, satirical illustrations consisting of multiple panels frequently appeared in "Jiji Shinpo," including those by unknown authors. While we are familiar with four-panel manga, the technique of using multiple panels, rather than just a single-panel satirical drawing, may have been the "US style" that Hidetaro was particular about. Also, the exaggerated character depictions seen in "Beijing Yume-makura" are not found in his works after his time in the US, as exemplified by the work above. Was such a change in artistic touch also a result of what he saw and heard in America?

Hidetaro's artistic talent likely met Fukuzawa's expectations greatly. There may have been illustrations and satirical drawings produced after consultation with Fukuzawa. However, few of Hidetaro's works remain today. He passed away in 1904 (Meiji 37) at the young age of 39.

Picking up the fragmentary episodes of Hidetaro that remain, an image of a person trying to entertain others emerges.

For example, in October 1890, there was a hot-air balloon performance by the Englishman Spencer. Hidetaro negotiated with Spencer and succeeded in having "Jiji Shinpo" flyers dropped from the sky. It was a shrewd advertising production that surprised people while also promoting the paper. This performance became a hot topic, and with Fukuzawa providing the script ideas, it even became a Kabuki play ("Fusennori Hyoban no Takadono"). Spencer was played by Onoe Kikugoro V, and the English prologue delivered in the play was based on a draft by Fukuzawa, revised by the Reverend MacCauley, who was a friend of Fukuzawa, with Hidetaro reportedly teaching the pronunciation.

Also, in 1894, when Port Arthur fell during the First Sino-Japanese War, a celebration was held at the Juku. At this time, wanting to do something new, a Kandelaar March was held at Hidetaro's suggestion. A kandelaar was a portable light made by putting kerosene in a tin can and lighting a cotton thread wick, modeled after the American torchlight procession. This procession continued as a unique celebratory event of the Juku until the early Showa era, and the roadsides during the march were always crowded with spectators.

Above all, his main business of "manga" was something that entertained people. That spirit was inherited by his successor, Rakuten Kitazawa. Rakuten took over the word "manga" and published a page titled "Jiji Manga" as a supplement to the Sunday edition of "Jiji Shinpo," sending excellent satirical illustrations out into the world. Due to the hit of "Jiji Manga," the word "manga" permeated among the people, and satirical illustrations came to be called "manga."

From Meiji to Reiwa. Hidetaro's dedication bore fruit, and eventually, "manga" became a word that includes not only satirical illustrations but also works that weave stories on a wide range of themes with pictures and words, as we imagine today. Hidetaro's name is engraved in the history of MANGA, which is known worldwide.