Tsuyoshi Inukai

Image: Collection of the Inukai Bokudo Memorial Museum

It was a long-awaited holiday. The Prime Minister's Official Residence, usually bustling with men in suits wearing tense expressions, was quiet and still that day. Just after 5:00 p.m., as a peaceful day was coming to an end, the atmosphere at the residence changed completely after a taxi drove through the main gate and stopped at the entrance. Upon receiving an urgent report from a security officer that "thugs have broken in, please evacuate," the Prime Minister at the time, Tsuyoshi Inukai, remained completely unfazed and replied, "No, I will not run away. I will meet them and hear what they have to say."

As if to restrain the hot-blooded young officers who eventually broke into the dining room, Inukai raised his hand and said, "Wait. If we talk, we can understand each other without making a fuss. You can shoot anytime. Let's go over there and talk." He then led the officers down the hallway and toward the guest room in the back.

Tsuyoshi Inukai's tenure as Prime Minister lasted only about five months. Nevertheless, the reason Inukai remains a prominent Japanese politician and Prime Minister today lies in his consistent political stance of pursuing democracy, symbolized by the words "If we talk, we can understand each other." In an era when parliamentary politics was still immature, it was a battle to challenge the clan-based politics of the Satsuma and Choshu domains and the militarism symbolized by the phrase "No questions asked, fire!" through the power of words.

Inukai was born in 1855 in Niwase Village, Bitchu Province (present-day Okayama City). He studied Chinese classics from a young age and reached a level where he felt he "had the self-confidence to become a teacher of Chinese classics at a ragged Juku" (Bokudo Danso). The turning point came when he obtained a copy of "Bankoku Koho," a Chinese translation of a Western law book. Realizing that Western studies offered something Chinese classics did not, Inukai decided to study Western learning in Tokyo. Having lost his father, he traveled to the capital with 15 yen he received from a relative.

Inukai enrolled in a school called Kyokan Gijuku because of its low tuition, but he eventually ran out of money. In his distress, he moved into the home of Shigekichi Fujita, a graduate of Keio University and editor-in-chief of the Yubin Hochi Shimbun. Fujita noticed Inukai's foundation in Chinese classics and encouraged him to contribute to the newspaper. Once he began receiving manuscript fees and gained some financial leeway, Inukai enrolled in Keio University, which was considered the best in Tokyo at the time. He lived a life of total immersion, reading books by day and writing newspaper manuscripts by night, without socializing with other students. Since the dormitory lights were turned off at 10:00 p.m., he reportedly surrounded his lamp with straw mats to prevent the light from leaking out.

When the Satsuma Rebellion broke out in 1877, Fujita asked Inukai if he would like to become a battlefield scout. This was the precursor to the war correspondent. Accepting the offer—which provided company-subsidized tuition until graduation in exchange for exposing himself to danger—Inukai set foot on the battlefield alone and sent back reports while other reporters settled for covering the war from a distance. Inukai's "Direct Reports from the Battlefield" from the front lines quickly became a public sensation.

Inukai returned to Tokyo for a time and visited Yukichi Fukuzawa. When Fukuzawa said, "Do you know how far a bullet can reach? Wouldn't it be better to stay at the Juku and study rather than go to a dangerous place?" Inukai replied, "I am well aware that if I go to the battlefield, I must be prepared to die if something goes wrong" (Direct Accounts of Famous Men Speaking of Yukichi Fukuzawa), and returned to the battlefield. At that time, stimulated by the atmosphere of war, Inukai considered becoming a soldier. However, the government army commander Tani Tateki, whom he consulted, advised him, "The war will not last long. You should continue your studies," and did not allow Inukai to become a soldier. When Takamori Saigo committed ritual suicide and the Satsuma Rebellion ended, Inukai left behind the famous line, "Alas, I must sing on the day of the imperial army's triumphal return, and grieve on the day the nation's old meritorious servant dies," and his series of over 100 "Direct Reports from the Battlefield" came to a close.

When Inukai returned to Keio University, Yukichi Fukuzawa shouted at him, calling him a "reckless fool." When Inukai's whereabouts were temporarily unknown, rumors had circulated that he had been killed by a stray bullet. Fukuzawa likely worried about Inukai's safety precisely because he recognized his talent and had high expectations for him. From then on, Inukai was assigned the task of transcribing Fukuzawa's opinions. Around this time, the Enzetsukan (Public Speaking Hall) was built in Mita, and Fukuzawa himself stood on the podium to spread the practice of debate and public speaking in Japan. Inspired by this, students and graduates formed groups to hold debate meetings, and Fukuzawa called them the "young men of Civil Rights Village." Inukai also started a group called Yukosha.

Furthermore, in anticipation of the future establishment of a national parliament, mock parliaments were held. According to Inukai's reminiscences, Fukuzawa himself initially served as the chairman, but because he became so involved in the debate that he neglected the proceedings, the chairman was eventually replaced.

At that time, Keio University had about 300 Keio students. Even if Fukuzawa did not stand at the lectern, students living in the dormitory interacted with him on a daily basis and "were unconsciously influenced by the teacher's character" (Bokudo Danso). In later years, Inukai would casually refer to even high-ranking individuals without titles, but throughout his life, he only ever referred to Fukuzawa as "Yukichi Fukuzawa."

However, Inukai dropped out of Keio University just before graduation. It is said that this was either because his pride was wounded when he fell to second place after always being first since enrollment, or because he had a falling out with the Yubin Hochi Shimbun and was struggling with living expenses.

On July 1, 1890, voting for the first House of Representatives election took place, marking the beginning of parliamentary politics in Japan. Inukai, who had no money, borrowed 150 yen from party leader Shigenobu Okuma and entered Okayama's 3rd district. The voters were happy to exercise their right to vote, but they viewed it as a matter of great responsibility. They decided to select the well-known Inukai, but when it came time to hear him speak, they worried they might not understand his fluent Tokyo-style public speaking. Therefore, they decided to have the most knowledgeable person in the vicinity sit in the center of the venue to act as an interpreter. It is said that Inukai spoke at length not about his political views, but about the significance of the Diet and elections. Inukai won the election with expenses of about 25 yen. After this, Inukai would go on to win 19 consecutive elections throughout his life with low-cost campaigning, though it was not always a smooth path.

Because of his integrity, Inukai struggled financially. When he ran out of political funds, he would appeal to Eiji Asabuki (the husband of Fukuzawa's niece), who was active in the business world and very supportive. When Asabuki refused, saying he had no money, Inukai reportedly became indignant despite being the borrower, saying, "I'm a politician, so it's natural for me not to have any, but isn't making money your profession?" (Kojin Konjin).

During his long political career, Inukai changed his party affiliation frequently. This could be said to be because those around him wavered, prioritizing party interests and tactics. While exposed to those storms, Inukai's political stance of trying to break down clan politics and military intervention to realize true parliamentary politics remained as unshakable as a deeply rooted large tree, much like his pen name "Bokudo" (Wooden Hall).

In 1912, the first convention of the Association for the Protection of Constitutional Government was held. Inukai joined forces with his ally and fellow Keio University alumnus Yukio Ozaki to deliver speeches calling for the overthrow of clan politics. Their public speaking events drew large crowds who were captivated by their words. Before long, the two came to be known as the "Two Pillars of Constitutional Government" and the "Gods of Constitutional Government." On the other hand, their speeches in the Diet were sharp and severe, feared by those they criticized. Okuma described Inukai by saying, "He has a very foul mouth; when something touches a nerve, scathing and poisonous words immediately burst forth" (Bokudo Itsuwa).

This political movement developed into a popular movement called the First Movement to Protect the Constitution, forcing the cabinet of Taro Katsura, who was from Choshu, to resign.

Upon reaching the age of 70, Inukai decided to retire from politics and resigned as a member of the Diet, taking the opportunity of the realization of his long-awaited universal suffrage. However, in the by-election that was supposed to be held due to his resignation, Inukai was elected again. The world would not allow Inukai a peaceful retirement.

On December 12, 1931, the 76-year-old Inukai received the imperial mandate, and the Inukai Cabinet was formed the following day. Inukai, who had long advocated for an industrial nation that increased national strength through trade expansion rather than military buildup, immediately halted the removal of the gold export ban—which had triggered the depression—and re-imposed it. Furthermore, he pledged a peaceful resolution to the Manchurian Incident and won a landslide victory in a general election held to seek the public's mandate. Backed by the people's trust, Inukai set out to achieve peace between Japan and China. Inukai had strong ties with China, having supported Sun Yat-sen and other Asian revolutionaries. However, the peace efforts were blocked by the military and politicians close to them, ending in failure. The military's rampage knew no bounds, leading to the Shanghai Incident, and on March 1, 1932, the declaration of the establishment of the Manchukuo government was announced. Inukai dispatched a special envoy to Shanghai and successfully concluded a ceasefire agreement for the Shanghai Incident. This was on May 5.

On May 8, at the Kanto convention of the Seiyukai party, Inukai gave a short speech. In it, he stated, "We believe to the end in the miraculous utility of parliamentary politics and believe that sufficient improvement is possible," presenting his idea that corrupt party politics could be reformed by shifting to low-cost elections.

The following day, Inukai appeared on the hill of Mita. On this day, a commemorative ceremony for the 75th anniversary of the founding of Keio University was held in the Public Hall. Seventeen years earlier, at the opening ceremony of the Public Hall, Inukai had stated, "In the eyes of Yukichi Fukuzawa, all things are equal. (...) The social treatments of high and low, noble and humble, disappear once one passes through this mountain gate, and all people are equal. (...) This is the academic style of Mita. This is the school spirit of Keio University" (Mita-hyoron No. 216). True to these words, he attended the ceremony not as Prime Minister, but as one of the Keio University alumni, and read a congratulatory address: "That which stands out prominently is the Keio University of our late teacher Yukichi Fukuzawa, which is truly the leader of new culture. Its great contributions to the nation shall be immortal for a hundred generations. (...) I, the unworthy Tsuyoshi, standing at the end of the Keio Gijuku Shachu, am overwhelmed with emotion upon attending this grand ceremony. I offer a few words of congratulation and pray that the legacy of our late teacher will shine ever more brightly" (Mita-hyoron No. 418).

Six days later, even after falling to the bullets of rioters in the guest room of the Prime Minister's Official Residence, Inukai did not complain of pain once. With strong willpower, he said, "Bring the young men here. I will talk to them and make them understand." Late that night, Inukai passed away peacefully, and Japanese party politics came to an end. Party politics would not return to Japan until after its defeat in the war.

Inukai sometimes referred to himself as "Inukai Ki." "Ki" is the character for "kizen" (resolute), meaning strong-willed, firm in attitude, and undaunted. Inukai lived his life exactly as his name suggested.