Poland and Japan

Poland's history is full of drama. The "Partitions of Poland" by the three great powers—Russia, Prussia, and Austria—in the late 18th century continue to have a major impact on the consciousness of the Polish people today. However, prior to that, from the 15th to the 17th century, Poland (the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth) boasted considerable prosperity as a major power in Central and Eastern Europe.

It is said that the nation was founded around the 9th or 10th century. As Mr. Shibata mentioned, the period from the 15th to the 17th century was the so-called Golden Age, when Poland existed as a country with a very large territory.

Yes. A characteristic feature was that the nobility (szlachta) accounted for about 10% of the population, and from the 16th century, they chose their kings through an elective monarchy rather than hereditary succession. This fostered a strong sense of freedom, and I believe that the consciousness of democracy and freedom is still highly valued in present-day Poland.

However, because they valued freedom so much, these nobles often colluded with each other or were bribed by foreign powers, abusing their right of veto in parliament. This triggered interference from the great powers and eventually led to the partitions.

If asked "What kind of country is Poland?", I think one could say it is one of the oldest countries whose name remains. There are not many countries whose names have continued from the Middle Ages to the present, like the current name Poland (Polonia in Latin, Polska in Polish).

There was no country called Italy, nor were there countries called Germany or Austria. Among the names of the countries that currently make up the EU, Poland is one of the oldest.

Regarding language as well, after the end of Latin dominance in the Middle Ages, Luther and others worked hard to spread German in the 16th century, but Polish literature was established in the mid-16th century, only slightly behind German.

I think this "oldness" is important. I believe their self-image has existed from the Middle Ages to today. The awareness of being Polish must have existed for a very long time.

One thing that surprised me in Poland was that May 3rd is Constitution Day, the same day as in Japan. However, in Poland, the constitution was enacted in 1791.

This is the second oldest codified national constitution in world history, after the United States. Therefore, they had a tradition of parliamentary politics with a very long history. Polish people seem to be proud of that. That period was the era of the so-called First Republic.

That was the end of it.

After that, following the period of partitions and the end of World War I in 1918, they managed to win independence based on the principle of national self-determination, and that was the start of the Second Republic. Then, after World War II and the communist regime of the Soviet era, the Cold War ended in 1989 and the country democratized. That is when the Third Republic began.

The First Republic is called a republic even though it had a king. This is rare. I don't know of any others.

This system, where even the king is chosen by election, is also called a Noble Republic or Golden Liberty.

The transition to elective monarchy happened around the mid-16th century, exactly the same time as the autonomy of the written Polish language. The right to vote was held by anyone with noble status—equivalent to the samurai class in Japan. There were no restrictions on the nationality of the king to be elected.

Therefore, there were several foreign kings. In fact, the king chosen in the first election came from France. In that way, an interesting kind of parliamentary democracy existed from quite early on.

That's true.

And the king didn't have much power; they disliked absolute monarchy (laughs). All the nobles, who made up 10% of the population, were masters of their own domains, held large estates, possessed a certain degree of freedom, and acted as rival local leaders.

The king was merely one among many powerful lords, and there was no national standing army. Meanwhile, the surrounding powers aiming for absolute monarchy—France, the Habsburgs, Russia, etc.—grew stronger and stronger, and Poland was torn apart at the end of the 18th century.

There is also a deep relationship with Christianity.

In the Middle Ages, as Poland was founded and established its position within the Latin and Christian community, it had intense encounters with non-European forces, particularly the Mongols, and began to develop a self-awareness.

Around the time of the Mongol invasions of Japan, the Poles fought the Mongol army—the Tatars—and suffered greatly, with their monarch being killed. They were given a mission by Rome to protect Christendom and began to be conscious of it themselves.

Then, a little later, when it came to fighting the Russians who belonged to a different branch of Christianity, the Eastern Orthodox Church, they could no longer simply say they were protecting Christianity. So, the rhetoric that emerged was, "We are protecting Europe, protecting freedom, and protecting democracy." These are words we've heard somewhere before (laughs).

That is often said nowadays.

In other words, they played the role of the bulwark of Europe, protecting the eastern border of Europe.

Thus, the Polish people have a logic of having protected Europe and protected Christianity. This isn't taught in Japanese schools, but I think it's an important point. When you actually go to Europe or America, you encounter such rhetoric.

Regarding that idea of protecting Christianity and protecting Europe, the concept that remains most strongly in present-day Poland is probably the Messianism created by Romantic literature.

In the 19th century, two major armed uprisings occurred in partitioned Poland: the November Uprising of 1830–31 and the January Uprising of 1863–64. When the November Uprising failed, intellectuals went into exile in Paris. There were three major poets, including the national poet Adam Mickiewicz, who represented Poland, and it can be said that these poets shaped the consciousness of the "Polish nation."

In the 1830s, Mickiewicz and others likened Poland, which was suffering from the loss of sovereignty, to Christ among the European nations. By shedding blood and fighting, Poles would atone for the sins of people trapped in despotic states or materialistic civilizations and build the Kingdom of God on earth. In the 1840s, this developed into an expectation for a hero to lead this struggle. They reinterpreted their consciousness of suffering as a national mission to restore freedom to Europe. It is, so to speak, the ideology of a community of fate.

Originally, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was the region with the largest number of Jews in the world. It was between the current Republic of Poland and the Russian Federation. But this, too, is rarely taught in schools. This is because the maps in textbooks distributed at school are all political maps divided by borders, and a Jewish state did not exist until the re-establishment of Israel.

If you look at maps divided by borders, Poland disappears at a certain point in time. In the 19th century, when Japan opened up and Japanese people first learned about Poland, the state of Poland happened not to exist. I think this has greatly influenced the image of Poland as seen from Japan.

What was written about most in the Meiji era was the tragic history of Poland, the image of "poor Poland." From that, a perspective also emerged that we should try not to become like Poland.

Among the competing great powers, weak countries are devoured, so we must strengthen our military, centralize the country, and become a strong nation. Looking at Meiji-era literature, we can see that Poland was in mind as an example of a country that became prey and was torn to pieces.

Yukichi Fukuzawa also touched upon the partitions of Poland in Things Western (Seiyō Jijō) and in an editorial in the Jiji Shinpo titled "The Poland of the East." He likely felt a sense of crisis that the dominance of European powers would extend to Asia, overlapping it with the situation in Poland.

I basically believe that the Polish people have a national character that is tolerant toward foreigners. When I think about how they lived together tolerantly with many Jews before the war, I feel a bit of a disconnect with the claim that exclusionary tendencies are emerging in Poland, as is being made a fuss of in the media today.

Aside from the Jewish population, they haven't had much recent experience with the influx of immigrants, so there may be an aspect of lacking experience.

Various studies have recently come out regarding Jews and anti-Semitism. One of the triggers was the book "Neighbors" by Jan Tomasz Gross, published in Poland in 2000, which revealed that a massacre of Jews was actually carried out by Poles in the town of Jedwabne during World War II.

Since this was just before joining the EU and when the identity of the Polish people was being debated, old anti-Semitism resurfaced, with claims that it was a conspiracy by Jews—the "others" to the Poles—to tarnish the country's image.

Although still few in number, it seems that Muslim immigrants are gradually increasing now. I believe we must carefully watch what kind of discourse will unfold regarding immigrants in the future.

I was first posted to Poland in October 2011, the year the Great East Japan Earthquake occurred. For more than six months immediately after 3/11, bouquets of flowers and lanterns were constantly displayed in front of the embassy gates, praying for the peace and recovery of the disaster-stricken areas.

After taking up my post, I met many Polish people, and everyone was worried about whether the disaster was okay, which I was very grateful for. Many people provided strong support to Japan through donations and charity activities.

I felt that behind this surge of support for Japan was, after all, a pro-Japanese national sentiment.

I think there are various stages in the history of exchange between Japan and Poland since the 19th century, but the very first, as is the case with Europe as a whole, was the influence of Japonisme.

It is said that a collector named Feliks "Manggha" Jasieński, whom Mr. Sekiguchi has written about, traveled all over Europe collecting ukiyo-e. There is also a story that film director Andrzej Wajda saw Jasieński's collection in his youth, was shocked by it, and connected it to his own creative activities.

However, in terms of art history, I think Poland is the country in Europe with the fewest examples of Japonisme.

When Jasieński bought many pieces of Western European modern art and Japanese prints at auctions and exhibited them in Warsaw, he had a terrible time, didn't he?

That's true. At that time, it seems Jasieński's appearance was also considered unusual.

Rather, there were many criticisms that he was exhibiting things from a barbaric country that could hardly be considered art. In other words, unlike Berlin, Paris, or Vienna, Warsaw did not accept his ideas.

On the other hand, in the old southern city of Kraków, there was a higher understanding of art compared to Warsaw. It was freer than Warsaw, and Jasieński was accepted, with people thinking Japanese art was interesting.

But compared to other countries, wouldn't it be fair to say that Japonisme was weak in Poland?

I believe Jasieński thought that Poland lacked national or ethnic art, and he said he wanted to create it by taking inspiration from Japanese art.

When I spoke with modern Polish people who are interested in Japanese culture, they also said that because they weren't able to pursue beauty to the extreme in Poland, Japanese art becomes a driving force for them.

Therefore, even if Japonisme was weak at the end of the 19th century, I think its influence continues to this day.

To put it simply, I think the Russo-Japanese War was a major reason why Poland is pro-Japanese. Japan, a country in Asia they didn't know well, defeated the hated Russia that had tormented them so much. The enemy of my enemy is my friend. There is an aspect where that feeling still continues, and I hear that history textbooks devote a considerable number of pages to the Russo-Japanese War.

Furthermore, there is a very heartwarming episode connecting Japan and Poland. Around 1920, after the Russian Revolution, there were many Polish orphans in Siberia. They were the children of families exiled to Siberia, who had lost their parents and were in a dying state due to malnutrition.

Among the countries they asked for help, only Japan accepted them. About 800 orphans recovered their health in Japan and returned safely to Poland. This episode also remains in the memory of the Polish people.

Also, Polish people have an interest in and admiration for Japanese culture rich in spirituality, such as martial arts, tea ceremony, and flower arrangement, which I feel leads to pro-Japanese sentiment. That's why the enthusiasm for learning Japanese is high, and the popularity of anime and Japanese food is also very high.

Mr. Shibata, do you also think they are a pro-Japanese country?

Whether they are politically on the right or the left, there are few instances where they say bad things, and I think there are many people who like Japan.

I see. To say something slightly to the contrary, it's been over 50 years since I started coming into contact with Poland through literature, film, and prints, but I don't have the impression that Polish people have a particular affinity for Japan compared to people from other countries.

A long time ago, in the 1970s, I actually taught a geography class at a Polish elementary school.

Is that so? I didn't know that.

There, I learned how little about Japan is taught in the educational field. It's a lack or absence of Japan. Furthermore, the information written in newspapers and textbooks was incorrect. I was quite shocked by that. Of course, there were various biases at the time, such as the socialist era, but to put it simply, I had a strong impression that Japan was not correctly known.

This lack of knowledge is linked to images and myths that come from places like America and Germany. In other words, when an image of Japan comes to someone who hasn't studied it properly, they accept it uncritically.

As Mr. Yamanaka mentioned, it is certainly true that the fact that Japan defeated Russia in the Russo-Japanese War remains in their collective memory as a starting point. However, I don't have the impression that Poland is more pro-Japanese compared to other European countries.

Currently, there are 300 Japanese companies operating in Poland, creating 40,000 jobs. I've heard from people at local Japanese companies that Polish employees are uniformly very diligent, humble, work hard, and are straightforward.

I often hear stories that when Japanese companies expanding into Europe or America hire local people, they are "obedient in appearance but rebellious in heart"—following orders on the surface while badmouthing the Japanese behind their backs—but that is not the case in Poland, and labor-management relations are extremely smooth.

The number of Japanese language learners is, of course, the largest in Central and Eastern Europe, and the quality is also very high. As for the popularity of Japanese food, it's said that there are over 200 sushi restaurants in Warsaw alone.

These are phenomenal aspects, but I feel they reflect a pro-Japanese national character.

While living in Warsaw for a long time, I was often approached by people saying, "Are you Japanese? I like Japan," so I thought they were pro-Japanese. However, as Mr. Sekiguchi mentioned, it could be said that the image of Japan as a country of admiration comes first, and they have an "idealized Japan" that they've created in their minds.

In the 1990s, Japanese anime began broadcasting on television in Poland, so at the university where I teach, there are many students who came to like Japan under that influence, and I think there is great interest in modern popular culture.

The Japanese food boom also started quite late in Poland compared to the rest of the world. I think Japan and Japanese people are still not part of everyday life and are considered rare.

For example, even comparing the films of Ozu and Kurosawa, Kurosawa's name recognition is overwhelmingly high in Poland, while those who know about Ozu are limited to a few specialists. In rankings of the world's best films in the UK, Ozu's "Tokyo Story" was at the top for many years. Poland hasn't reached the stage of finding Ozu interesting. It's still at the stage of exoticism. This is my very strict view.

Furthermore, one thing I think we might never be able to understand each other on is the concept of individualism that Polish people have as a self-image. They view Japanese people as collectivists. They might say we are disciplined, but they can also have a military-like image.

There was talk about factory expansion, but from what I've heard, it wasn't easy to get Polish people to do radio calisthenics. In other words, they have a very strong aversion to everyone doing the same thing on command.

I think it also took a long time for manga and anime to be accepted by Polish people. That might be because the value of being a child, or a culture that places "kawaii" (cute) at the top like "kawaii culture," was alien to them. In other words, Poland is a culture that values being a mature adult, a culture where one is constantly pressured to be an adult.

Looking at several points like that, I think there are actually quite a few differences between Japan and Poland.

Well, I understand what Mr. Sekiguchi is saying, but I feel that perhaps you feel that way precisely because you are a specialist.

I believe there are different layers to the understanding of foreign culture, art, and academia: the specialist level and the so-called grassroots level of the general public.

Regarding specialists, I think the level of people researching Japan at the University of Warsaw and Jagiellonian University, which I am familiar with, is quite high compared to other European countries.

I agree that it is high.

As an example of the grassroots level, there is the "Japan Festival" that started in Warsaw in 2013. With a large venue, it introduced Japanese culture through stages, booths, and food stalls, gaining popularity as a place for interaction between locals and Japanese residents. It has been held every year since then, making this year the 7th time. The Japan Festival now feels firmly established as a popular event that attracts about 30,000 visitors in a single day.

Another significant presence is the Manggha Museum of Japanese Art and Technology in Krakow. This museum hosts exhibitions of artworks such as ukiyo-e, workshops, and lectures, attracting over 100,000 visitors annually. It celebrated its 20th anniversary in 2014 and continues to serve as a major hub for disseminating Japanese culture.

I believe there is a strong foundation in Poland for joyfully accepting Japanese culture, technology, and art.

Anime has been very popular, starting with "Captain Tsubasa" and "Sailor Moon." Even now, students talk about them in a sentimental tone, so I think they have had an influence on the younger generation.

The popularity of cosplay is also amazing, isn't it?

That's true. Young Polish people sometimes say that they can "feel freedom" through cosplay. I suspect that when they consider where to source the materials for their own identity, Japanese culture appears as one of those materials—an "attractive otherness."

In Western Europe, where modern civilization has fully matured, there are people who reject Europe with an intensity we can hardly imagine. They desperately search for non-European values in places like Japan or India.

However, in Poland, Eurocentrism—the value of European things—is likely still very high. That was a hindering factor in understanding the value of Japan and Japanese culture. But that may be changing.

Yet, there is something a bit mysterious about Poland. While they admire and have protected Europe, there is also an Orientalist-like pushback. It is a very delicate and complex psychology, which manifests, for example, in clothing and customs.

I'll give just one example. In 17th and 18th-century Western Europe, it was a status symbol and a sign of authority for high-ranking intellectuals and judges to wear wigs. However, in Poland, as a symbol of such status and authority, it was a fashion to shave the head, similar to the "sakayaki" (shaved pate) of Japanese samurai. And a mustache was always necessary. In this way, there is a pushback against Europe and an assertion of their own uniqueness. This is called Sarmatism.

They also link Catholic traditions to their own uniqueness, and even today, there is a kind of pushback against Western European policies such as anti-clericalism or the expansion of LGBT rights.

Another topic that often comes up regarding Poland and Japan is Chopin's music. I think this is also a kind of myth, but for Polish people, Chopin's music is considered an artistic work that represents the soul of the Polish nation.

The International Chopin Piano Competition has been held in Warsaw since 1927, and the first Japanese participant was Chieko Hara in 1937. Since then, many Japanese people have competed in the Chopin Competition, with 12 participants in 2015.

Because Japanese people love the music of Chopin, which is the soul of Poland, a desirable self-image for Polish people is reflected like a "mirror," which I believe leads to the recognition that Japan and Poland have a wonderful friendly relationship.

When people think of Poland in Japan, Chopin comes first. That is followed by names like Copernicus or Madame Curie.

Moving to more recent times, some people might know Pope John Paul II, film director Andrzej Wajda, and former President Lech Wałęsa, who was the chairman of Solidarity. However, with few exceptions, there are hardly any Japanese people who know more Polish figures than these.

As such, it must be said that the general interest and understanding of Poland among Japanese people is lagging. Especially compared to the high interest Polish people have in Japan, the gap is large. I think the desire of Poland to accept Japan more is considerably stronger.

During my four and a half years working in Poland, what I struggled with was that while both the government and the general public had very high expectations of Japan, the Japanese side was often unable to respond to them.

Many Japanese students are studying at music universities in Poland, including Warsaw.

Earlier, Mr. Sekiguchi mentioned that they value individualism and freedom above all else. Chopin's music is very difficult to play because it honestly reveals the humanity and character of the performer. To play it, one must be free and always be "oneself."

When I talk to Japanese pianists who have studied in Poland, they say that within the culture and life of Poland, it becomes possible to perform honestly to oneself and in a natural way. There is a way of breathing that one doesn't feel in Japan—a true climate for the "artist." I think this is one example of Japanese people actively embracing Poland.

For example, in terms of trade with Poland, Japan has already been overtaken by South Korea. China overtook us long ago. Therefore, I thought the number of Japanese language courses would decrease, but they are as energetic as ever—in fact, they are increasing. Various universities want to somehow create Japanese language courses or departments. This cannot be explained by economics alone. The passion for the Japanese language and interest in Japan in Poland is constant.

In contrast, it is difficult to even find the letter "P" for Poland in Japan. It only appears in national newspapers once or twice a year. The reason a Polish language department was established at the Tokyo University of Foreign Studies was because of the Revolutions of 1989. If that opportunity had been missed, I don't think it could have been done. Even now, only about 15 students study Polish per year, and there are no jobs for them.

Regarding culture, although it's at a low level, there is constant interest. It's theater, film, graphic arts, and music. It continues very modestly and doesn't influence the general public, but interestingly, in Japan's case, there are not only Chopin societies but even Szymanowski, Moniuszko, and Paderewski societies.

I think Polish people would be surprised by this.

When the Cold War ended and Poland democratized, and they considered their future path, they decided to return to a Europe that shares their values—entrusting their future to Europe.

And finally, in 2004, they achieved EU membership. I think Poland is the largest beneficiary among the 28 member states.

That's true.

Economically, becoming a member of the EU clearly led to Poland's current prosperity. In terms of security, they have maintained peace and stability to this day with a policy of valuing relations with NATO and the United States.

The problem there is that recently the EU itself has lost a lot of centripetal force and is deepening its confusion. There are immigration issues and populist movements. A clear example is Brexit.

In a situation where the EU is losing its centripetal force, how much can Poland work toward the ideal direction of the EU while receiving benefits from it? For Japan, it is important for Europe to prosper and become strong, and I pray that Poland will play a constructive role within that.

I believe Poland is an entity from which Japan can learn many things regarding freedom, democracy, and national issues. As Mr. Yamanaka said, I hope they return to the direction of protecting universal values such as justice, democracy, freedom, and human rights within the EU.

Currently, a state of political division and confusion continues, so as a researcher of Poland, I hope they can overcome that.

Since this year marks the 100th anniversary of diplomatic relations, various commemorative events are being planned. These include concerts, symposiums, workshops, and a "Chopin Exhibition."

It seems they will be held at the Hyogo Prefectural Museum of Art and other venues. In terms of art, the Polish Film Festival has been held since 2012 with director Jerzy Skolimowski as the supervisor. Polish films have been screened at Iwanami Hall and other places since the 1980s.

From my perspective, the cultural exchange that has lasted the longest and most constantly through close personal relationships between artists is graphic art, especially posters. And perhaps theater.

In 2013, Prime Minister Abe visited Poland for the first time in 10 years for a Japanese Prime Minister. In 2015, then-President Komorowski visited Japan.

Furthermore, a working holiday system started in 2015, allowing young people to interact while working in their host countries.

As our bilateral relations reach their centenary, I hope that exchange will progress even further in the future.